Imperialism in the 19th century Essay

There was a great deal of Imperialism in the 19th century, led by mostly westerners from Europe. Imperialism is the act in which one nation extends its rule over another. Imperialism had a substantial effect on the 19th century throughout the entire world by bringing upon changes to many different countries, for better and for worse, especially to Africa. Prior to the nineteenth century, westerners did interfere with many of the affairs of nations outside of their boarders, so signs of imperialism are shown many times throughout history. Examples of this would be the European colonies in the Americas and also influence in Asia. Whenever a western country was involved with the economy of an outside country, There were many reasons for Imperialism, two of which were economical and political. What better way to boost an economy than to open markets in other areas of the world? The colonized nations had abundant supplies of resources that could not be found in Europe, which is what first attracted the westerners. Because of imperialism, not only did Europeans have access to resources in Africa and Asia, but they also had access to cheap labor by forcing the natives of the lands to work for little or no money. The desire of power and security for the military were also causes for Imperialism. By having control over distant lands, it would be a benefit, militarily, to have bases spread out around the world, especially during times of war. (Wakefield, Edward Gibbon A Letter from Sydney and Other Writings on Colonization) Racism on account of Social Darwism was another major factor contributing to Imperialism. Social Darwism (â€Å"survival of the fittest†) led to the Europeans’ belief that they were of a higher race and it was their duty to go into other areas and improve the lives of the people who inhabited those lands. Improving lives meant spreading western religion (Christianity), culture, and influence. The following quote from The Backward Peoples and Our Relations with Them by Sir Harry H. Johnston shows an example of how westerners thought: â€Å"†¦Let us proceed to define who and what these backward or unprogressive peoples are and to what extent they may be considered to be retrograde and ineffective as compared with the dominating white race.† There were many other examples of writing, such as The White Man’s Burden by Rudyard Kipling, which supported the belief of white men being of some supremacy and of the white man’s need to colonize. Nationalism also played a role in support of racism by allowing people to become extremely confident in their nationality and in turn, creating a form of the feeling of superiority. (Johnson, Sir Harry H. The Backward People and Our Relations with Them) There was a lot of competition between the different European states economically and politically. Imperialism made this competition worse by creating another factor to contend over. Obviously a nation with many colonies throughout the world would be more powerful than one with very few colonies. So, when one western nation begins to take over foreign lands, it would only be natural for many others to follow the example as to not be left behind in the competition and for their own economic wealth. This occurred during the scramble for Africa, wherein European nations raced to gain control over different areas in Africa. During the mid nineteenth century, Europeans were beginning to colonize along the coast of Africa, but couldn’t go much further because disease would spread, quickly killing of much of the European settlers. Since at the time Europe was going through the Industrial Revolution, there were many advances not only made technologically, but also in the field of science and medicine. With new technology, goods could be mass produced in factories and so a surplus of goods was often an occurrence. Europeans turned to Africa for new markets as to make money off of their surpluses and Africa also was rich in natural resources to fuel Europe’s many growing industries. Since new medicines had been discovered, Europeans could move further into Africa and stay for longer periods of time. In addition to advances in medicine and in industry, new weapons were developed, which could easily defeat those of the Africans. This allowed for larger European settlements to be set up in Africa and hence, the race for territories began. Another reason for the scramble for Africa was the fear of upsetting the balance of power. Every European nation was concerned about their rivals  becoming more powerful than they were. The main nations involved were Britain, France, Germany, and Italy. During the late nineteenth century, all of these countries, and a few others went into a â€Å"scramble† to claim territories in Africa. (Mastanduno, Michael â€Å"Imperialism†) The scramble for Africa began with an attempt by King Leopold II of Belgium wanting to gain control of the area of the Congo Basin. Tensions arose between the British and the French, because of the British gaining more control over Egypt, which was the country they had once had joint control over the finances of. France was also competing with Italy in northern Africa, so tensions were strong everywhere. Germany felt pressured by the other European nations who were gaining control over territories on Africa. Bismarck, who happened to be ruler at the time, declared control over three territories in eastern and western Africa, which caused even more strain between European nations. Since the control for African territories arose very quickly, the Berlin Conference was set up to discuss the policies of claiming lands in Africa to avoid any more bitter rivalries. (â€Å"The Scramble for Africa† The Economist) Fourteen European countries and the United States were in attendance at the Berlin Conference that took place between 1884 and 1885. Boundaries were determined and also rules for trade and for future conquest within Africa. Of the countries present at the conference, only half of them had their own colonies in Africa and none of the represented nations were the nations colonized or any other African nation. What basically came out of the Berlin Conference was the Berlin Act, which called for free trade in the Congo basin and free navigation along the Niger among other things. When it came to the rules of further domination in Africa, each country had to inform the other countries whenever they took over an African territory and had their decision to colonize had to be based on â€Å"effective occupation†. Freedom of trade was declared with all nations and also, it was agreed that slavery and the slave trade would be suppressed. (Mastanduno, Michael â€Å"Imperialism†) Imperialism affected colonized nations in many ways especially economically, politically, and culturally. There were often many positive and negative  affects of imperialism on the colonies that were taken over. The culture and religion of the colonized people was often condemned to try to have the people move in the way of the westerners. In Africa, economically, Africans made very little profit off of the goods they produced. All of the capital went to the Europeans. Also, before colonization, Africans traded within the continent, but this practice was ended once the westerners became involved in their affairs. So if anything, the colonial period, was one of economic corruption, rather than economic development. (Boahen, A. Adu, ed. General History of Africa (Abridged Edition): VII Africa under Colonial Domination 1880-1935) Colonization in Africa led to an overall increase of the African population, which could be thought of as a positive social affect. The quality of life was improved in terms of there being hospitals, a sewage system, and sanitary facilities and there was also an increase in employment opportunities. Western inventions such as the steam engine and other machinery were introduced to Africa. Christianity and Islam were spread and so was western education. Colonialism caused a change in the social structure of Africans was it allowed mobilization between the classes. Social class was not determined by birth, but by a person’s success individually. (Boahen, A. Adu, ed. General History of Africa (Abridged Edition): VII Africa under Colonial Domination 1880-1935) Behind all of the positive social effects, there were many negative ones. A larger division was created between those who dwelt in urban areas and those in rural areas. Western education had made the barrier between these people larger. Colonization allowed for the rich, white Europeans to take over all of the good and fertile lands and also allowed them to monopolize in trade in Africa. Even though there were educational institutions set up, they were inadequately spread out and didn’t have much of an effect on Africa as a whole. There were still very large illiteracy levels. Also, there was no emphasis made on technical or industrial education, which would’ve been more useful. Racism was stressed during imperialism in Africa and created a sense of inferiority for the people who inhabited the continent at the time. (Boahen, A. Adu, ed. General History of Africa (Abridged Edition): VII  Africa under Colonial Domination 1880-1935) Politically, colonialism in Africa created a larger degree of continuous peace and stability than there ever was before. There were now definite boundaries in Africa, which was a good call in terms of organization. There was also a new found nationalism that spread throughout the continent. On the other hand, a lot of the political changes were negative. Because of boundaries set up by the westerners, many ethnic and religious groups were torn apart, which affected the lives of the natives on a personal level and created many disputes. The boundaries also did not ensure that natural resources were distributed evenly, which would serve as a problem since the economy of Africans was dependent on what they could gather from their land. Africans lost their independence and were basically ruled by the white colonial leaders, who also owned almost all of their property. For a long time, the people of Africa had lost their right of liberty. (Boahen, A. Adu, ed. General History of Africa (Abridged Edition): VII Africa under Colonial Domination 1880-1935) In conclusion, imperialism was an enormous part of nineteenth century history. There were many different reasons for western nations wanting to colonize and many different outcomes that came about from colonization. Imperialism showed many affects toward all of the nations involved whether they were being dominated or doing the domination. The scramble of Africa was an example of what occurred in western imperial rule and clearly shows the positive and negative consequences of imperialism.

A Weekend with My Grandparents

Last weekend was one of the most enjoyable weekends I have ever had. I spent it with my grandparents not their farm. I have often stayed on the farm before but this was a special occasion. It was my first visit during the middle of the fruit season. My grandparents have a huge orchard full of fruit trees such as durians, lychees and mangosteens. The fruits in the orchard are deliciously sweet and tasty, as I have often tasted. When I arrived early on Saturday morning,my grandmother told me that grandfather was at the orchard.I immediately set off on my bicycle to the orchard that was only five kilometers away. It was a pleasant ride because it was cool and the air smelt clean and fresh, quite different from the air in the city where I live. Soon, I reached the orchard and went looking for my grandfather. He was of course thrilled to see his only grandchild. When I offered to help, my grandfather gave me a basket and told me to pick up the ripe mangosteens. He also gave me a long stic k with a knife attached to one end.This was to help me reached the fruit that were high up on the tree. there were several other men who helped to pick the fruit. These were the workers who had been hired for this specific job. B lunchtime, I had already filled many baskets and put the fruits into large containers. We had a brief stop when the women brought food for all of us. We sat under the shade of the trees while my grandfather told me stories of the days gone by. Then we continue plucking the mangosteens.By evening, all the mangosteens had been plucked before the fruit seller arrived. He weigh the mangosteens and then put them onto his lorry. When we went home that evening I was tired but happy. My grandfather told me I had done a good job although I had eaten quite a lot if the fruit that I had picked. The next morning, we again set off to the orchard. This time we were supposed to gather the durians and the mangosteens. Since I had no experience, I was not allowed to gather the durians. I just helped with the mangosteens.There were not that many trees so we finished by lunchtime. After lunch, my grandfather, who knew how much I loved durians, opened a few of the durians for us to eat. The flesh was smooth and creamy and tasted delicious. After the fruit seller had loaded up the fruit, my grandfather and I went back home. I spent the evening taking with my grandparents who had many interesting stories to tell. Then, my parents arrived and we all had dinner and it was finally time to go home. My weekend had been extremely tiring it it was thoroughly enjoyable.

Job Sharing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Job Sharing - Essay Example In this cutthroat competition, job sharing is playing an important role in almost all sorts of businesses. In job sharing, each partner receives the full time benefits. In contrary, there are people who say that job sharing reduces the efficiency of the company as well of its employees. In this paper, we will examine why job sharing is good and what type of benefits the employees can get from it Job sharing permits business to recruit skilled, experienced workers who may not be available for or eager to do full-time work. Job sharing is a good field for both males and females but more precisely for women having kids. They can work as well as look for their family. Job sharing tolerates one position to be filled by two people different but harmonizing knowledge. Without the knowledge it is not possible to go further with the work. There should be the knowledge of related work and the company's objectives. Where job sharers have administrative responsibilities staff may find it demanding or confusing to work for two people. There is a problem that the manager can experience is that there are two people to look for. In addition, some job sharers may feel that they are attaining proportional more than a full-time employee and that they are being insufficiently paid. TheDefinition "Deal in which the responsibilities and hours of one job position are accepted out by two people." The deal contains the agreement about working with the other employee and sharing the benefits and pays. The company must organize workshops in order to provide total knowledge about the job for both the sharers and must provide the total tools required to cover the job. If one of employee wants to leave the job the company must look for another person to follow the job with the one who is working. The work should be done on time with effectiveness and efficiency by both the workers and must take company's objectives as their own. The women can get more benefits in job sharing and can get the required benefits. Even males can get good results with job sharing they can work at two places at a time for better allowance. There must be better allowance for the workers and they should be given more benefits like transport facilities, hospital facilities etc. Chapter No. 2 - Literature Review Introduction Job Sharing is an adaptable work arrangement in which two employees share the responsibility and benefits of one permanent position with another employee. Some employees work few hours in

How do the interests of corporations conflict with the public's Essay

How do the interests of corporations conflict with the public's interest - Essay Example (Lydenberg 9) The main aim of my paper is to address the question that while global corporations have become the foundation of world economy, do they act in the interest of the general population. I have made use of the highly resourceful and entertaining book by Joel Bakan, The Corporations, among other sources, where the author examines the ‘pathological pursuit of profit and power’ with a deep insight into dominant problems of the current market paradigm. He compares private corporate industry, amusingly as well as disturbingly, to a clinical psychopath whose obsessive self-indulgence does not admit human considerations of common public welfare. Aided by government-sanctioned laws, functioning to further business interests, these great corporations act with absolute impunity, pursuing the single object of meeting their own financial targets. While much of the prevailing argument is negative, one must admit the capacity of public good that Corporate Welfare truly holds and can contribute to society. Market productivity can propagate, even ensure, general innovations in terms of technology and finance. However, whether that immense power is actually employed for its real purpose is another question altogether. Several current discourses and studies are now addressing these areas. Many works seek to confirm the validity of a number of activities falling under the broad category of Corporate Social Responsibility and aims at the behavioral analysis of the related philanthropic aspects of the said initiations. (Keim 1) Other researchers openly criticize the entire concept of corporate social welfare, deeming it an empty facade that merely masks the ugly face of self-interested private enterprises, driven only by and towards profit and power, as superbly exemplified in Bakan’s excellent book. The recent atmosphere of public distrust and doubt towards the corporations are quite evident given the frightening economic crashes in the past few years . The on-going debates over public vs. corporate interests have intensified following the emergence of the market trend of privatizing and industrialization of social services. (Lydenberg 10) In The Corporations, Bakan gives a comprehensive outline of the process of corporate growth from the 17th to the early 20th century, citing the first major incidents of economic disasters, almost as cautionary tales of corporate greed. He goes on to present a non-ambivalent and direct criticism of the US jurisprudence for supporting the ultimately counter-productive business claims of large companies for the temporary gain of profits. The de-regularization of legalities concerning corporate functions have handed over too much freedom to these industries, causing a capitalist power center that controls much of the socio-political scenario. However, I must highlight, that efforts have been made in the recent past to correct this oversight and gain back some government control over the companies. Contemporary readings, I believe, must involve an examination of both ‘the market and the public sphere models’ (Crocteau and Hoynes 38). The past three decades show the development of several strategies to counter corporate exploitation of public

Critical review and evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Critical review and evaluation - Essay Example ) have the major task of presenting the financial statements which can fulfil the requirements of all the users of financial statements and not only the investors. This report is presented by CFA Institute as guidance to these standard setting bodies to incorporate some major changes in the existing set of financial statements with respect to the investors. The following discussion holds a critical approach as to whether the proposals suggested under this report by CFA Institute are considered and incorporated in the most recent advancements made by FASB and IASB. CFA institute provided this proposal to protect the stake of investors whether equity or debt investors. The aim of the institute was to prepare the financial statements that can achieve the objectives of the investors. However, the financial statements do provide the necessary information upon which the investors can take their decisions, but CFA institute failed to provide more investor specific information which should be included in the financial statements by FASB and IASB. From the above proposal, CFA institute wanted to secure the equity investors as they have the last claim on the assets of the company after creditors and other suppliers of finance. CFA institute holds the view that the equity investors should have the most recent information regarding the off-balance sheet transactions, contingencies and other claims to which they are liable but they are unaware regarding their amounts and magnitude. Similarly, those assets, which act as revenue generating units should also be come on the face of financial statements to provide the equity investors specific information about these matters. If the existing standards are taken into consideration, it can be noted that the amounts in respect of contingencies, off-balance sheet transactions etc are still not provided as the standard setting bodies believe that these areas still lack of measurement due to which they cannot be recognized.

Example of Advertisement Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Example of Advertisement - Assignment Example For instance, Nike Company has to advertise different football uniforms as well as well the soccer ball. In doing so, it will be intending to attract more clients to buy its products. First, the company starts by introducing itself to its clients (Burges, 2007). For instance, the Nike advert states that; Nike is a multinational company that specializes in the production of quality sports material at an affordable cost, meeting our customer demand is our primary responsibility. The sports products we offer include football uniforms, boots as well as socks among other things in the sports industry. The advert will be targeting various football clubs across the world. The company will have to use social media as a marketing strategy to reach many people in short time. In addition, it will be targeting fans of particular sport or sportsman or woman because many individuals like associating themselves with their respective heroes. The primary purpose of an advertisement is to attract customers into the company thus boosting company image before the public. In addition, the promotion is supposed to change the perception of individuals or consumers towards that particular product (Burges, 2007). Moreover, the development strategy is also meant to increase sales volume of the company thus increasing its profitability. The advert message will be to convince the client about the quality of the product. In addition, the letter will also affirm the client on the ability of the company to deliver timely products as per

Role of Women in Vietnam War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Role of Women in Vietnam War - Essay Example Vietnam women contributed actively in different capacities during the period. According to Mobile Riverine Force Asociation [mrfa], about â€Å"7,484 women served in Vietnam, of whom 6,250 or 83.5% were nurses† and others were active combats in the war (1). Women also contributed in other areas such as supporting the agricultural sector so as to provide enough food for men who were busy fighting for independence. Despite the visible contribution of women during the War period, gender inequality was the major factor limiting their full contribution. According to De Anza College, the majority of women serving in the army as active combats were perceived as helpmates rather than counterparts (1). There were reports that even the female soldiers did not get fair treatment and some of them experienced sexual harassment. Other functions of women in the War included serving as couriers, patrol guides and activists to publicize various organizations. Women were also motivated to contr ibute to the war against foreigners in order to secure freedom and also fight for equality. Women also took advantage of gender stereotypes by foreigners to enable them to achieve their intended objectives such as maintaining the supply of food and other consumables to their male counterparts (University of Utah, 1). On the other hand, it is important to note that Vietnamese women roles in the war resembled the roles of women in other communist revolutions in the world. Comparing the revolutions in Vietnam, Cuba, Russia, and China, all women involved in the four revolutions had an aim of fighting for equality in the society. Therefore, most women from the four regions formed part of the activist groups that advocated for equality and women representation in all sectors including being part of the government.

Corporate Culture of Google Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Corporate Culture of Google - Research Paper Example This brings a sense of belonging to the employees boosting their morale which can be reflected in improved productivity. This has created a tradition of participatory decision making that explores the benefits of the creative and innovative contribution of the workers towards sustainable value creation activities. Firms where top management makes critical decisions, the workers may be constrained to deliver under harsh rules and regulations. In the case of Google, the decisions made are objective rather subjective in the sense that they capture the interest of the majority while taking team goals as a priority (Kandula, 2007). This has the effect of helping the workers to unleash their potential in the overall production and management process a factor that has seen the firm maintain a high standard of quality at an environmentally feasible level. There is a significant amount of perks workers obtain from Google. One of such benefits includes acquiring of the firm’s products at discounted prices which significantly help the workers save. In some instances, the workers are given some services free of charge as an indirect motivational strategy and appreciation gesture towards better productivity (Sofo, 2000). This promotes the spirit of unity and sense of caring for the organization to its employees. By pointing out that the employees are considered invaluable to the firm, it is evident that the wage size and allowances are favorable to sustain the workers hence promoting their overall welfare. Google has put effort towards favorable working environment through organized safety equipment (Walsh, 2013). Google’s human resource department offers free training and development opportunities which are couples with free services during the classes. This saves the workers from spending money and time in a training colleg e hence its preference by workers.  

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

History - Essay Example The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHC)v is based upon these four freedoms, and this essay will examine which articles correspond to these four freedoms. This essay will also examine Barack Obama’s speech, which also corresponds to the four freedoms as well. Many of the articles correspond to the freedom from fear. This might be because the declarations of human rights are protection documents for people’s lives, so the the UDHC would be focused upon this. Many of the articles seem to deal with issues such as slavery, torture and other atrocities that might happen in a dictatorship or during wartime. For instance, Article 5 states that â€Å"no one shall be subjected to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.† This would definitely be aligned with the freedom from fear – if a person is subjected to some kind of torture, and this is known to the person, then this would definitely induce fear in this person. FDR might have me ant freedom from fear in a broader sense, in that citizens need to be free from other country’s threatening their borders with war, but torture would be in line with this freedom as well. Further, another article that is aligned with the freedom from fear is Article 14 – and this article states that everybody has the right to seek and enjoy asylum in other countries if they are being persecuted. This, too, is based upon the freedom from fear, in that, if individuals are being persecuted, which often happens in countries where there is some kind of ethnic cleansing or the country is under siege from war. Therefore, they have a right, if they are living in fear, to seek asylum from another country where they wouldn’t be living in this fear. Another freedom is the freedom from want. This is somewhat associated with the previous freedom, the freedom from fear, in that want and fear often happen in the same conditions. There is an article that corresponds to this fre edom, as well, and that is Article 17, which is the freedom to own property and also states that nobody shall arbitrarily deprive another person of this property. This corresponds to the freedom from want, in that, if a person owns property, then this is a measure of prosperity and wealth. This also means that the person is less likely to want – if the person does fall on hard times, then the owning of the property can sustain him or her. Owning property is not a guarantee against poverty, but it makes it less likely that poverty would happen to that particular individual. Another article which corresponds to this freedom is Article 23, which states that everybody has a right to work and free choice of employment, without discrimination and with favourable remuneration, which ensures that the person’s family has dignity and respect, as well as means of social protection. This is more related to the freedom from want, because, as with owning property, having a job would ensure some type of economic security. It might be minimal, as, in different countries, wages are known to be quite low, but, even if the pay is minimal, it still is better than nothing. And, no matter how minimal the wage is, the money would still go towards providing the basic necessities of the people of the country, and this would correspond from the freedom from want. Freedom of religion is another important freedom, and some of the articles

Marriott Corporation” the Cost of Capital Essay Example for Free

Marriott Corporation† the Cost of Capital Essay What is the weighted average cost of capital for the Marriott Corporation and cost of capital for each of its divisions? – What risk-free rate and risk premium did you use to calculate the cost of equity? – How did you measure the cost of debt? – How did you measure the beta for each division? Solution What risk-free rate and risk premium did you use to calculate the cost of equity? – Risk-free rate proxy The risk-free rate is determined using the yields of U. S. Treasury securities, which are risk-free from default risk. U.S. Treasuries are subject to interest rate risk, therefore, the selected maturity should correspond to an investment horizon[1]. – Investment horizon According to the cost-of-capital calculation methodology used by Marriott Corporation, lodging division was treated as long-term, while restaurant and contract services divisions were treated as short-term because those assets had shorter useful lives. – Expected return proxy Arithmetic average return is more suitable than geometric mean as it is better in estimating an investment’s expected return over a future horizon based on its past performance (geometric mean is a better description of long-term historical performance of an investment). – Risk-free interest rate Taking into account the above, arithmetic average annual returns of long-term U.S. government bonds for the period 1951-1987 (4.88%, see Appendix 1) is  considered to be risk-free rate for lodging division. Arithmetic average annual returns of short-term U.S. government bonds for year 1987 (5.46%, see Case Exhibit 4) is considered to be risk-free rate for restaurant and contract services divisions. – Market proxy SP 500 index is selected as a market proxy as it is believed to be close to the true market portfolio. As it is important to use historical returns for the same market index used to calculate beta (which is given), an assumption is made that the given leverage data is calculated based on the same SP 500 index. – Market risk premium Market risk premium should be calculated for the same horizon as that used for the risk-free interest rate. Thus a spread between SP 500 composite returns and long-term U.S. government bond returns for the period 1951-1987 (7.88%, see Appendix 2) is a market risk premium for lodging division. A spread between SP 500 composite returns and short-term U.S. government bond returns for year 1987 (-0.23%, see Case Exhibit 5) is a market risk premium for restaurant and contract services divisions. How did you measure the cost of debt? Marriott Corporation and each division are given market value-target leverage ratios and credit spreads as well as U.S. government interest rates as of April 1988 (see Case Tables A and B). According to investment horizons discussed above, the following cost of debt is estimated: How did you measure the beta for each division? Ideally, when estimating beta by using past returns, time interval should be consistent with an investment horizon. Betas given in Case Exhibit 3 are estimated over 1986-1987 period. As these are the only betas given, they are assumed to be relevant for both long-term and short-term investment horizons. Equity betas of each division are calculated from comparable hotel and restaurant companies. Equity betas are then unlevered taking into account financing structure of each company according to the following formula: [pic], where Tax = 40% An average of unlevered betas of comparable companies is assumed to be a proxy for unlevered betas of Marriott divisions. For calculations of unlevered betas for each division see Appendix 4. What is the weighted average cost of capital for the Marriott Corporation and cost of capital for each of its divisions? WACC is calculated according to the formula given in the case taking into account the tax shield. Cost of equity is calculated according to CAPM model.

Understand The Two Concepts Culture And Civilization Sociology Essay

Understand The Two Concepts Culture And Civilization Sociology Essay This essay will attempt a brief review of the history of the concept culture and its relationship with the concept civilization, in order to understand the two concepts, without making any claims towards offering anything new in the analysis of the chronological account of how the definition of culture changed over time.  [1]  Instead, the essay will attempt to explore the harmonies and dis-harmonies in the utilization of the two concepts, as a way of coming to terms with immanent ruptures and continuities which were explicated in various ways in which the logic and lexicon of these concepts were deployed in the different anthropological traditions over the years. From the outset, I would like to mention that I almost abandoned this particular topic because of the difficulties I encountered in finding a concise definition of, mainly the concept of culture. When, after several weeks of reading, it finally dawned on me that actually there was none, it all started to make sense that the subject of defining the concept of culture has never been closed and was never intended for foreclosure. This meant that understanding how the concept was variously deployed was as important as appreciating the manner of its deployment, especially in ways in which this was always associated with the concept of civilization, whose definition was more straightforward. The notion of Culture: Following a very unsuccessful search for a concise definition of the concept culture, it dawned on me that Terry Eagleton and several others was after all correct when he said that culture was one of the few very complicated concepts to have ever graced the English language (Armstrong, 2010: 1; Eagleton, 2006: 1; Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952). Culture was a very difficult concept to define because the evolution of its etymology and its deployment varied in different contexts and anthropological traditions, both contemporary and classical. Its meaning in one setting was often contested in another. The word culture was first used in America  [2]  , and in etymological terms, its contemporary usage has its origin in attempts to describe mans relationship with nature, through which resources were extracted. It depicted the outcomes of extraction of resources from nature through a process of labor, for example, through crop farming and livestock production (Eagleton, 2006: 1). It was in this sense that the concept was first formally deployed in the 19th century in Germany, where the word used was Kultur, which in German referred to cultivation.  [3]  The early German usage of the word culture was heavily influenced by Kant, who, like his followers, spelled the word as culture, and used it repeatedly to mean cultivation or becoming cultured, which subsequently became the initial meaning of civilization (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 10). The way the concept was first used in modern English borrowed from the usage first made of the word by Walter Taylor, which dates back to 1871 , although according to Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952: 9), Taylors use of the word culture, which was borrowed from German, was similar to the way the word civilization was used in Germany. The above sense in which the concept culture was for long deployed depicted it as an activity or occupation that entailed a materialist dimension related to the extraction of resources from nature. Coming from Walter Taylor, the modern scientific sense of the word culture no longer refers primarily to the process of cultivation, but more generally as a manifestation of customs, beliefs and forms of government (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 10). The latter sense signifies some abstraction to the transcendent and divine realm of spiritualism. Over time, the concept was also deployed in other ways that depicted it as an entity (Eagleton, 2006: 1). There was also a sense in which the concept of culture also depicted the transformation that took place in societys experiences with changing technologies of production as capitalism developed, although this understanding was quite often deployed in racist terms to differentiate between less industrialized nations of the non-west from the more ind ustrialized European societies. It is true, as observed by Eagleton that the relationship between nature and culture was such that nature produces culture which changes nature (Eagleton, 2006: 3). In this sense, there is a part of nature that is cultural, and another that is not. The part of nature which is cultural is that part which labor transforms, for example, into works of art, monuments, skyscrapers (or building structures) or cities. Such products of culture are as natural as rural idylls are cultural (Eagleton, 2006: 4). Because culture originally meant cultivation, or managing the growth of crops, which means husbandry, the cultural therefore would imply that which was within ones means to change. As pointed out by Eagleton (2006: 4), the stuff to be altered has its own autonomous existence, which then lends it something of the recalcitrance of nature in much the same way as the extent to which culture transforms nature and also influences the rigorous limits nature imposes on the cultural project. To this extent, I am in agreement with Eagleton (2006: 4-5) that the idea of culture signified a double rejection, of, on the one hand, the representation of culture as an organic (biological) determinism; and, on the other, as an interpretation of culture as an embodiment of autonomous spiritualism. To this extent therefore, culture rebuffs naturalism and idealism founded in biological determinism by insisting that from the point of view of culture, there was also a representation within nature which exceeded and dismantled nature. It also represented a refusal of idealism because even the highest-minded human agency had its humble roots in our biology and natural environment. The resulting contradiction from this rejection of naturalism (emanating from organic determinism) and idealism (as a result of autonomy of spirit) led to a contest between what had actually evolved and what ought to, which transfigured into what Eagleton described as a tension between making and being made, between rationality and spontaneity (Eagleton, 2006: 5). Consequently, although the relation between humans and nature was important to an understanding culture, in this paper, I consider the social relations between humans and nature in the course of extracting from nature, through which humans change nature to be the most important. This is what is central to understanding the concept of culture, which makes it possible to view it as a systematic way of life and living, that humans consciously develop that is transferred from the past to the present and into the future. It depicts some semblance of historically assembled normative values and principles internal to social organizations through which a diversity of relationships are ordered. In this way, it is possible to see how culture becomes an abstraction of itself, in its own right, which does not reify culture as a thing as this essentializes culture. I am inclined to agree with Armstrong (2010: 2) in her definition, which presents culture more as a process of meaning making which i nforms our sense of who we are, how we want to be perceived and how others perceive us. The above said, we also need to recognize that while culture is important, it is also not the only factor that shapes social relations between humans in the course of impacting on nature in ways that change it. Several other social, economic, political, geographical, historical and physical factors come into play. It is necessary to recognize that culture, which embodies as much as it conceals its specific history, politics and economics; is, as also pointed out by Franz Boaz  [4]  , not inert. It is an inherently Boasian conception to view culture as extremely dynamic; as having life, and existing in a continuous state of flux, as new notions of and about culture continues to emerge. This means that cultures cannot be expected to be static and homogenous. As new cultures emerge, tensions are usually generated. The totality of any culture and its individual trait cannot be understood if taken out of its general setting. Likewise, culture cannot also be conceived as controlled by a single set of conditions (Benedict, 1934: xv). It is also Franz Boaz  [5]  who noted that culture is some form of standardized or normative behavior. An individual lives in his/her specific culture, in as much the same way as culture is lived by an individual. Culture has a materiality that makes it manifest in diverse patterns implying that it meaningless to try and generalize or homogenize about cultural patterns (Benedict, 1934: xvi). Thinking of culture as socially constructed networks of meaning that distinguish one group from another implies not only a rejection of social evolution but also an endorsement of cultural relativism, which is also a Boasian tradition.  [6]  Boaz  [7]  rightly argued that perspectives that view culture in evolutionary terms tend to end with the construction of a unified picture of the history of culture and civilization, which is misleading. Tendencies which view culture as a single and homogenous unit, and as an individual historical problem is extremely problematic (Benedict, 1934: xv). I consider the distinctive life-ways of different people as the most basic understanding of the notion of culture. Cultural relativity is a recognition that different people have cultures and life-ways that are distinct from those of others. The notion of civilization: The concept of civilization, like culture, also has a complex etymology. By 1694, the French were already using the verb civiliser, and referred to the polishing of manners, rendering sociable, or becoming urbane as a result of city life (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 11). The French notion of civilization referred to the achievement of human advancement manifest in certain customs and standards of living. The French considered civilization as the end point of a process of cultivation that took place over centuries (Elliot, 2002). The English lagged behind the French.  [8]  In 1773, Samuel Johnson still excluded civilization from his dictionary, preferring civility, and yet civilization (from the word civilize) captured better the opposite of barbarity than civility. The English subsequently adopted the concept of civilization deriving it from the verb to civilize and associated it with the notion of civilizing others. The 1933 Oxford Dictionary defined civilization as: A developed o r advanced state of human society; a particular stage or type of this (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 12). By the 18th century, the word civilization in German was associated with the spread by the state of political developments akin to the German state to peoples of other nations. It was somewhat similar to the English verb to civilize (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 11). For the Germans and English, the concept of civilization invoked an imperial political agenda that was apparent in the way they deployed the concept. The harmony and dis-harmonies in deployment of concepts of culture and civilization: The evolutionary thinking about culture and civilization in the philosophy of Durkheim: Among the scholars who attempted a very rigorous narrative intended to distinguish between culture and civilization was Émile Durkheim, whose writings were first published in 1893. In trying to come to terms with the complex division of labor and associated behavioral changes that occurred with the industrial revolution in England, Durkheim, argued that inside modern industry, jobs were demarcated and extremely specialized, and while each product was a specialty, it entailed the existence of others in form of the labor they input into its production. As society evolved from agriculture to industry, so did culture of the pre-industrial era give way to civilization associated with the conditions of progress in human societies. Durkheim extended the concept of division of labor from Economics to organisms and society, from which its association with culture was derived, arguing that the more specialized an organisms functions were, the more exalted a place it occupied in the animal hierarchy. For Durkheim, the extent of division of labor in society influenced the direction of the development of the evolution of mankind from culture to civilization (Durkheim, 1984: 3). Durkheim used division of labor to make the distinction between culture as a preserve of the pre-modern mediaeval society and civilization as belonging to the modern industrial society. Durkheim argued that all societies are usually held together by social solidarity. In the pre-industrial societies, where social bonds were based on customs and norms, this solidarity was mechanical while in the industrial societies, which were highly individualistic, the solidarity was organic, and social bonds were maintained by contracts which regulated relations between highly individualistic beings. To Durkheim, societies transition from relatively simple pre-modern societies to relatively more complex industrial societies (Durkheim, 1984: 3). Durkheim argued that division of labor influenced the moral constitution of societies by creating moral rules for human conduct that influenced social order in ways that made industrial societies distinct from the pre-industrial ones. It created a civilized, individual man, capable of being interested in everything but attaching himself exclusively to nothing, able to savor everything and understand everything, found the means to combine and epitomize within himself the finest aspects of civilization. For Durkheim, tradition and custom, collectively defined as culture were the basis of distinction of the simpler societies which defined their mechanical form of solidarity that they exhibit. The modern societies, according to Durkheim, were characterized civilization (Durkheim, 1984: 3-4). Durkheim advanced an essentially Darwinian argument. In the biological determinism of Durkheim, it is argued that the shift from mechanical to organic solidarity was comparable to the changes that appeared on the evolutionary scale. Relatively simple organisms showing only minimal degrees of internal differentiation ceded place to more highly differentiated organisms whose functional specialization allowed them to exploit more efficiently the resources of the ecological niche in which they happened to be placed. The more specialized the functions of an organism, the higher its level on the evolutionary scale, and the higher its survival value. In similar ways, the more differentiated a society, the higher its chances to exploit the maximum of available resources, and hence the higher its efficiency in procuring indispensable means of subsistence in a given territory (Durkheim, 1984: xvi). There were fundamental contradictions in the perspectives of Durkheim. If Durkheim denigrated culture to the pre-modern, and viewed society as developing in evolutionary terms to the industrial, it could be assumed that he also believed that the solidarity which was associated with the industrial society was better. What then explains the fact that Durkheim was deeply convinced of and concerned about the pathology of acquisitiveness in modern capitalist society? Durkheim did not believe that the pathological features of the industrial society were caused by an inherent flaw in systems built on organic solidarity. Rather, he thought that the malaise and anomie were caused by transitional difficulties that could be overcome through the emergence of new norms and values in the institutional setting of a new corporate organization of industrial affairs (Durkheim, 1984: xxi). For Durkheim, the flaws in industrial and class relations did not mean that the pre-modern characterized by culture was better. That the class conflicts which were inherent in the industrial society and were associated with the structure of capitalist society would be overcome by the emergence of a new corporate society in which relations between employers and employees were harmonized. Beholden to none of the political and social orientations of his day, Durkheim always attempted to look for a balanced middle way (Durkheim, 1984: xxii). The contemporary play of relationships between culture and civilization has, to say the least, rendered wanting, the ideas which were advanced by Durkheim. For example, if culture is a preserve of the pre-modern, what explains the pervasiveness of barbarism within civilized formations of the industrialized world? Can we have culture in societies that are characterized as civilized or with civilization? Or are societies that are said to possess culture devoid of civilization? The contradictions in the etymology and deployment of concepts of culture and civilization: The usage of culture and civilization in various languages has been confusing. Websters Unabridged Dictionary for English defined both culture and civilization in terms of the other. Culture was a particular state or stage of advancement in civilization. Civilization was called advancement or a state of social culture. In both popular and literary English, they were often treated as near synonyms, though civilization was sometimes restricted to advanced or high cultures (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 13). As early as the 1950s, there were some writers who were inclined to regard civilization as the culture of urbanized societies characterized by cities. Often, civilization was considered a preserve for literate cultures, for instance, while the Chinese had civilization, the Eskimo were seen as in possession of culture (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 13). The English language distinction between civilization and culture made in the past was different from that made in the German language. In German, civilization was confined to the material conditions, while the English expression sometimes included psychic, moral, and spiritual phenomena (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 13). The German Kultur also referred to material civilization, while culture in English over time came to mean something entirely different, which corresponded to the humanities. The German Kultur also related to the arts of savages and barbaric peoples, which were not included in any use of civilization since the term civilization denoted a stage of advancement higher than savagery or barbarism. These stages in advancement in civilization were even popularly known as stages of culture; implying that the word culture was used synonymous with the German Kultur (Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 13). In English, culture was a condition or achievement possessed by society. It was not individual. The English phrase a cultured person did not employ the term in the German sense. There was a sense of non-specificity in the way in which the concept culture (Kultur) was deployed in the German sense (Krober Kluckhorn, 1952: 13). From its etymological roots in rural labor, the word culture was first deployed in reference to civility; then in the 18th century, it became more or less synonymous with civilization, in the sense of a general process of intellectual, spiritual and material progress. In Europe, civilization as an idea was equated to manners and morals. To be civilized included not spitting on the carpet as well as not decapitating ones prisoners of war. The very word implied a dubious correlation between mannerly conduct and ethical behavior, which in England was equated to the word gentleman. As a synonym of civilization, culture belonged to the general spirit of Enlightenment, with its cult of secular, progressive self-development (Eagleton, 2006: 9). Form my reading of the literature on this subject, it was not clear at what point culture and civilization begun to be deployed interchangeably. Suffice to mention, however, that in English, as in French, the word culture was not unconditionally interchangeable with civilization. While it was not entirely clear, between the two concepts of culture and civilization, which predated the other, they both shared a transcendental association with the notion of cultivation, as something which is done to (or changes in) humans in the course of exacting labor upon nature to change it, that leads to the development of human qualities to suit the needs of collective humanity. Culture, which emerged in German from the notion of Kultur, which meant cultivation, appeared as a form of universal subjectivity at work within the particularistic realm of our separate individualities. For Eagleton (2006: 8), it was a view of culture as a component of civilization which was neither dissociated from socie ty nor wholly at one with it. This kind of focus also portrayed an essentially Kantian notion of man as becoming cultivated through art and science, and becoming civilized by attaining a variety of social graces and refinements (or decencies), in which the state had a role to play. This Kantian conception therefore distinguished between being cultivated and being civilized. Being cultivated referred to intrinsic improvement of the person, while being civilized referred to improvements of social interrelations (interpersonal relations), some kind of ethical pedagogy which served to liberate the collective self buried in every individual into a political citizen (Eagleton, 2006: 7; Kroeber Kluckhohn, 1952: 11). There was a sense in which the concept of civilization had an overwhelming French connection (coming from the concept civilizer), in the same way culture was associated with the Germans (from the concept Kultur). To be described as civilized was associated by the French with finesse with regards to social, political, economic and technical aspects life. For the Germans, culture had a more narrowly religious, artistic and intellectual reference. From this point of view, Eagleton (2006: 9) was right when he observed that: (i) civilization was deployed in a manner that played down national differences, while culture highlighted them; and, (ii) the tension between culture and civilization had much to do with the rivalry between Germany and France. I am reminded here of Eagletons famous phrase that: civilization was formulaically French, while culture was stereotypically German (Eagleton, 2006: 10-11). Towards the end of the 19th century civilization and culture were invariably viewed as antonyms. If, however, the description by Eagleton (2006: 9) of French notion of civilization as a form of social refinement is acceptable, then one can also accept Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952: 14) description of civilization as a process of ennobling (or creating nobility) of humanity through the exercise by society of increased control of the elementary human impulses. This makes civilization a form of politics. In the same light, I also agree with Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952: 14) that cultures German connections link it with the control of nature through science and art, which means culture embodies technology (including equipment) as well as knowledge systems (including skills) relevant for subduing and employing nature. The implications of the above are two-fold: (a) culture and civilization, can not be looked at as antonyms or binary opposites, in the sense in which evolution theorists would want us to view the relationship between these two concepts with culture as being akin to an inferior status while civilization is ascribed to the superior; (b) both tend to depict not only elements of normativity in advance in life-forms, but also constantly improving internal conditions of the internal elements of these concepts that define humanity which they embody. There is a way in which the elements embodied by these concepts depict superiority in their respective life-forms. Even when there are tendencies for overlaps in the elements depicted by these two concepts, for example, their association with politics, art, technology and urban living, there is a sense in which both concepts cannot be viewed as stages of development one from the other. It appears to me that Eagleton viewed civilization as a value-judgmental concept that pre-supposed an improvement on what went before, to whatever was not only right, but a great deal better than what was (Eagleton, 2006: 10). Eagleton was also non-presumptive when he pointed out that historically, the deployment of the term put it within the lexicon of a pre-industrial European middle class, which used the concept to justify imperial ambitions of mercantile and early industrial European capitalism towards those they categorized as of inferior civilization (Eagleton, 2006: 10). This fact has to be borne in mind if the concept when the concept is deployed today. Culture on the other hand, required certain social conditions that bring men into complex relationships with natural resources. The state becomes a necessity. Cultivation was a matter of the harmonious, all-round development of the personality. Because there was overwhelming recognition that nobody could do this in isolation, this helped to shift culture from its individual to its social meaning. Culture had a social dimension (Eagleton, 2006: 10). Whichever was, between culture and civilization, the progenitor of the other, there is a dual sense in which these concepts appear linked by their enlightenment era roots; and also not linked at the same time. I agree with Eagleton that civilization sounds abstract, alienated, fragmented, mechanistic, utilitarian, in thrall to a crass faith in material progress; while culture seems holistic, organic, sensuous, autotelic and recollective. However, I have reservations with Eagletons postulation of, first, a conflict between culture and civilization, and secondly, presentation of this conflict as a manifestation of a quarrel between tradition and modernity (Eagleton, 2006: 11). One of the greatest exports from the Enlightenment era was its universalism. Post-enlightenment political philosophy contributed significantly to critiques of enlightenments grand unilineal narratives regarding the evolution of universal humanity. We can look at the discourse of culture as a contribution to understanding the diversity inherent in different life-forms with their specific drivers of growth. Increasingly, it had become extremely perilous to relativize non-European cultures, which some thinkers of the time idealized as primitive (Eagleton, 2006: 12). In the 20th century in the primitivist features of modernism, a primitivism which goes hand-in-hand with the growth of modern cultural anthropology emerged, this time in postmodern guise, in form of a romanticizing of popular culture, which now plays the expressive, spontaneous, quasi-utopian role which primitive cultures had played previously (Eagleton, 2006: 12). While todate the concepts civilization and culture continue to be used interchangeably, there is also still a sense in which culture is still deployed almost as the opposite of civility (Eagleton, 2006: 13). It is not uncommon to encounter culture being used in reference to that which is tribal as opposed to the cosmopolitan. Culture continues to be closed to rational criticism; and a way of describing the life-forms of savages rather than a term for the civilized. If we accept the fact that the savages have culture, then the primitives can be depicted as cultured and the civilized as uncultured. In this sense, a reversal means that civilization can also be idealized (Eagleton, 2006: 13). If the imperial Modern states plundered the pre ­-modern ones, for whatever reasons, is it not a statement of both being uncultured and lack of civility, quite antithetical to what one could consider as civilization of the west. What sense doe it therefore make to posture as civilized and yet act in an uncultured manner? Can viewing culture as civilization, on one hand, and civilization as culture, on the other hand, help to resolve the impasse in the contemporary deployment of these concepts? One fact is clear, either way; it has potential to breed postmodern ambiguities of cultural relativism (Eagleton, 2006: 14). Alternatively, if culture is viewed, not as civilization, but as a way of life, it simply becomes an affirmation of sheer existence of life-forms in their pluralities (Eagleton, 2006: 13). Pluralizing the concept of culture comes at a price the idea of culture begins to entertain cultural non-normativities or queer cultures, in the name of diversity of cultural forms. Rather than dissolving discrete identities, it multiplies them rather than hybridization, which as we know, and as Edward Said observed, all cultures are involved in one another; none is single and pure, all are hybrid, heterogeneous, extraordinarily differentiated, and non-monolithic (Eagleton, 2006: 15). Attempts to valorize culture as a representation of particular life-forms associated with civility can also be perilous. There is a post-modern sense in which culture can be considered as an intellectual activity (science, philosophy and scholarship), as well as an imaginative pursuit of such exploits as music, painting and literature. This is the sense in which cultured people are considered to have culture. This sense suggests that science, philosophy, politics and economics can no longer be regarded as creative or imaginative. This also suggests that civilized values are to be found only in fantasy. And this is clearly a caustic comment on social reality. Culture comes to mean learning and the arts, activities confined to a tiny proportion of humanity, and it at once becomes impoverished as a concept (Eagleton, 2006: 16). Concluding Remarks: From the foregoing analyses, it is clear that understanding the relationship between culture and civilization is impossible until we cease to view the world in binaries in which the West (Europe) was constructed as advanced and developed with the non-West perceived as primitive, barbarous and pagan. Historically, the Wests claim of supremacy was always predicated on their provincialization of the non-west, whose behavioral patterns were judged from the experience of the West, and characterized in generalized terms as traditional customs and therefore culture. I agree with Benedict, that the West did all it could to universalize its experience to the rest of the world, even when this experience was different from that of those from the non-west (Benedict, 1934: 5). Assumptions of the mutual exclusivity of culture and civilization in society are premised on perceived irreconcilability of values and beliefs. Religion was always used in the West to posit a generalized provincialism of the non-west. It was the basis of prejudices around which superiority was justified. No ideas or institutions that held in the one were valid in the other. Rather all institutions were seen in opposing terms according as they belonged to one or the other of the very often slightly differentiated religions. In this con

Health Care Within the NHS Essay -- Health Care

‘There is a minimum level of care that every person with diabetes deserves and should expect from their health service’ (DiabetesUK, 2011) During her time of care, Mrs Kaur will be entitled to regular checks of her cholesterol, blood glucose and blood pressure. Also her weight, legs, feet, eyes and kidney function should be regularly monitored and help with accessing educational courses and specialist treatments that are available. Mrs Kaur should also be entitled to emotional support, advice on quitting smoking, psychological support and an individual care plan. Other services that should be made available to Mrs Kaur are free prescriptions, support in managing her condition, access to support groups and the ability to take part in diabetes events such as the ‘living with diabetes day’ event. There are many risk factors for diabetes which include smoking, low HDL levels, high LDL levels, obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, impaired fasting glycaemia, severe mental health problems, high blood pressure, previous heart attacks or strokes and overweight women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Other risk factors are close family members (parents or siblings) with the same condition, women that have had gestational diabetes and the damage of any blood cells of any major organs. The reasons behind Mrs Kaur being at risk are firstly, her high level of junk food intake, as this has caused low HDL levels which is mainly caused by smoking, being overweight, poor diets, high carbohydrate diets, lack of physical activity and uncontrolled diabetes; the level of junk food she consumes has also caused her to have problems with her gallbladder which is most likely to be linked to gallstones as it is the most common reason for problems in this... ...itionist is the consultant nutritionist who is usually in private practice working with patients on an individual level creating meal plans specifically for increasing the patients’ health and losing weight. They also work with sportspeople creating specific meal plans for athletes. Lastly is the management nutritionists that largely work with schools to create healthy meal plans while being responsible for the ordering of all food supplies, keeping track of how all food is prepared and portion control for all meals supplied to students as well as this management nutritionists overseas all meal preparation in hospitals, schools, nursing homes and day care centres. Basically management nutritionists tend to work wherever there are big groups of people i.e. hospitals & nursing homes. Works Cited www.diabetesuk.org.uk www.prospects.ac.uk www.jobdescriptions.net

Krashen’s Hypotheses of Second Language Acquisition Essay -- Foreign L

Krashen’s Hypotheses of Second Language Acquisition For decades, foreign language teachers wandered in a scientific abyss. Until 1983, there had been little real research dealing with the ways in which someone acquires a second language. Teachers mostly used the audiolingual classroom model that had been in place for the past twenty years (or, even worse, the literally ancient grammatical translation model that had been used by civilizations millennia old). Clearly, language teaching methodology was in a poor situation. In 1983, however, Krashen published the results of an unprecedented body of research and paved the way for a revolution in our field. His five-point hypothesis focused on the difference between the acquisition of and the learning of a second language. Krashen has his detractors, of course, not the least of whom are American school districts, which have been reluctant to implement his teachings. Most experts agree, however, that his ideas are the most meritorious of the theories in circulation now, an d schools that refuse to incorporate them are doing their students a disservice. The first of Krashen’s hypotheses is the learning-acquisition hypothesis, which differentiates the two titular terms. According to Krashen, â€Å"acquisition† refers to the implicit knowledge we have of a language, whereas â€Å"learning† refers to explicit knowledge about a language. Implicit knowledge refers to command of a language as if it were one’s native language; explicit knowledge is what we unfortunately gain in most foreign language classes. One good example of this in Spanish is the phrase â€Å"me llamo,† which literally means â€Å"I call myself† but is usually translated by Spanish teachers as â€Å"my name is.... ... on teachers to find objective methods of evaluating students, which can be extremely difficult to do if they heed Krashen’s advice. The price that students pay for steady grading is, unfortunately, genuine competence in their chosen language, and it is far too high. The pending change in second-language teaching is often called an â€Å"incomplete revolution† because the educational establishment refuses to implement the system despite its acknowledged merits, choosing instead to languish in the mediocrity we face today. WORKS CITED Krashen, Stephen. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Press. 1982 Omaggio, Alice C. Teaching Language in Context. Proficiency Oriented Instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. 1986 Sole, Yolanda Russino. â€Å"The input hypothesis and the bilingual learner.† Bilingual Review 19:2. 99-100.

Sounds of Silence analysis Essay example -- essays research papers

In the process of conveying emotion and feeling, people take different routes in going about such a task. Some people draw, some debate, and others write. Paul Simon, a genius with words and music, wrote poems to describe his feelings on politics, love, and the ways of life. Hearing or reading a Paul Simon song gives a person a blessed experienced, they had just seen real emotion, an oddity in these days. One Simon song that stands out above the rest is also probably his most famous, â€Å"The Sounds of Silence†. Like many other Paul Simon pieces, the contradictory title is not the only confusing aspect of the song, each line conveys complex yet meaningful words.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The 60's was a decade dominated by great musicians: Bob Dylan, Janis Joplin, and Jimi Hendrix. Paul Simon is another man that tackled music and took it to the level of excellence, like the other 60's music idols. In his song â€Å"The Sounds of Silence†, he puts multiple concepts of importance into one 35 line poem, successfully getting his point across. So the question is, what are the sounds of silence and what is it Paul Simon is trying to say? The Sounds of Silence that he refers to numerous times shows the lack of human communication in everyday life . Simon is saying that intelligent conversations or friendly words to one another have been overlooked in society. The poem shows that although people talk to others, they are not saying what they truly feel. I...

Mildred Pierce

In Mildred Pierce, James Cain creates two women who are very strong characters. Veda and Mildred have extreme differences. Veda is a rude, selfish character who walks all over Mildred. Mildred is always trying to please Veda so she lacks parenting skills to punish Veda for her unacceptable behaviour. Veda and Mildred view life from completely different lenses. Their emotions, morals and interactions with others display their differences. Veda has always been a confident character; her confidence makes her feel superior to her family.Veda shows no emotion in the novel until she starts taking iano lessons from Mr Hannen. When she plays piano a softer side to her personality is portrayed. When Mr Hannen is unpleasantly honest with Veda, she cannot handle it. Mildred describes Veda's breakdown as â€Å"an awakening had taken place in Veda, that it wasn't in the least phoney' (160-161). While this is an important part in Veda's life, her personality does not change too much as the novel progresses. Veda's priority in life has always been money and this stays constant throughout the whole book. Veda looks down on her mom when she finds out she is a waitress.Only hen Mildred owns her own restaurant and earning a lot of money that she finally gets her daughters love. Veda is very happy that her mom has money, but not happy for her mom. Mildred's success brings them into a higher class. Veda starts to hang around other high-class teens. Veda's attitude worsens and she becomes very spoiled and bratty. Throughout the novel, Veda's attitude does not change. Eventually, she leaves Mildred to move to New York for fortune and fame, and to be with Monty. This proves she has never had cared about Mildred's feelings for her.On the other hand, Mildred is a very determined and strong woman. Her top value is her family. All of her work and time is put into pleasing and caring for Ray and Veda. Contradicting Veda's selfishness, Mildred would be characterized as selfless. She consta ntly forgives the disrespectful way Veda treats her without any sort of punishment. Mildred's personality is persistent throughout the whole book; she is strong, determined and selfless. The only case where she would not be characterized as that is when she falls into Veda's traps. Finally, at the end of the novel, we see a change in Mildred's emotions.She is completely able to let goof all f the pain that Veda discomforted Mildred with. Bert helps Mildred with this transition with the line, â€Å"to hell with her† (298). Mildred's selflessness is also present in her relationship with Monty. When Mildred first met him, he was wealthy and successful. It did not take long for the roles to switch. Mildred soon became the successful money-maker in the relationship. She would always slip him a twenty when she saw him. She soon fgures out that she is being taken advantage of and cannot hand her hard earned money out to Monty, which leads her to the decision to end the relationship. As stated on page 184, â€Å"the hand that holds the money cracks the whip†. Veda's only priority is money. Every choice she makes is dependent on her plan to be rich and successful. Veda approves of Monty before even meeting him. She is aware that Monty is notorious for being wealthy, so she wants to be a part of the career takes off she no longer cares about Mildred. She even makes fun of Mildred for working often and not making enough money. Ever since the beginning of the novel, Veda has strived for success and to become part a higher class. She accomplishes her goals by the end of the book.Although Mildred is a strong woman, Veda is Mildred's weakness. She does not stand up for herself and is repetitively giving in to the pressure Veda puts on her. Mildred is aware of Veda's goal to become rich and successful so she does anything she can to help Veda achieve this goal. Once Mildred starts making a decent amount of money, she spends it on material items to spoil Veda. Bec ause she is always trying to please Veda and get her to love and respect her, Mildred cannot stay upset with Veda. She describes it as â€Å"almost automatic with her now to acquit Veda of rongdoing, no matter how flagrant the offence† (184).This shows the control Veda has over Mildred. Veda is relentlessly disrespecting Mildred. Mildred forgives Veda almost instantly. She is always trying to please Veda and get her to like and respect her. Mildred cannot stay upset with Veda. She describes it as â€Å"almost automatic with her now to acquit Veda of wrongdoing, no matter how flagrant the offence† (184). Veda Judges others merely on how wealthy they are. It is her life goal to become rich and famous. She does not waste her time with people who do not belong in the higher class.Veda does not care about the emotions of others, especially Mildred's – she Just wants to become wealthy. She is completely aware that Mildred does not have any power over her and she knows that she will not be punished for disobedience to her mother. Her determination to become rich is extraordinary. She does not let anything slow her down. Besides when she breaks down when Mr Hannen is brutally honest about her career as a musician. Later on, Veda realizes that the harshness of Mr Hannen helped her further her musical career. Veda is very narrow-minded.She does not understand those who have different views on life. Specifically with Mildred; Veda cannot wrap her mind around the fact that Mildred is content with being in the middle class. Veda's beliefs are consistent throughout the novel; they even grow stronger. Her cruel personality is shown through her relationship with Monty. She uses Mildred to get closer to Monty. Mildred's feelings for Monty do not affect Veda's decisions; she is not fazed. At the end of the novel, she runs off with Monty. This proves the cruelness of both Veda and Monty. She says, â€Å"with this money I can get away from you.From you and t he chickens and your pies nd your kitchens and everything that smells of grease†¦ and women that wear uniforms and men that wear overalls† (200). Mildred has strong beliefs about creating positive and happy lives for herself and others. She is always working to make others happy. However, she gets self- conscious when she is with Veda. She is permanently seeking acceptance from Veda. Veda never comes to accept Mildred and treats very unkindly. This lowers Mildred's self respect because she believes that she is failing at the Job she tries her hardest at.She wants Veda to have a great life and she will do everything she can to create his. Mildred genuinely cares and gives Veda the life she chooses until the end of the novel. Bert comforts Mildred at this time and tells her that Veda is not worth time and worry. Mildred went through many hardships in her life. But, they were all life. Mildred devoted all of her time, energy, and money on pleasing Veda. With Veda's disrespec t, Mildred's life was slowly worsening. She could not find a way to capture Veda's love. It came down to Veda legitimately leaving Mildred in order for her to understand that Veda is not worth her time.Mildred was getting absolutely othing in return from Veda for every thing she did. In conclusion, Mildred and Veda portray many different characteristics. Mildred is selfless and loving, while Veda is selfish. However, through all of their differences, they have the same life goal†to achieve Veda's goal of becoming rich and famous. They do not work together to reach this goal, but separately the goal is met. Mildred puts all of her time into giving Veda everything she wants and needs. Veda helps herself and works on her personal musical career. Conclusively, their emotions, morals and interactions with others

Martin Luther/ John Calvin Biography

Martin Luther was born on November 10, 1483 in Eisleben Germany. His father was Hans Luther, a miner married to Margarete Luther, Martin's mother. Hans was determined for Martin to study law and eventually become a lawyer. Martin attended grammar school and once he graduated fulfilled his fathers wishes by attending law school. He then proceeded to drop out of law school, the story goes he was in a bad storm and was afraid he was not going to survive, he dropped to his knees and said â€Å"Help! Saint Anna, I will become a monk! †. This story may or may not have happened but nevertheless Martin did in fact become a monk.Luther fully dedicated himself to monastic life, devoting himself to fasting, long hours of prayer, and frequent confession. But during this time Luther was not happy, he felt he had lost touch with Christ and his religious values. He informed his superior Johann von Staupitz of this and in response Staupitz sent Luther to study theology in college. In 1512 he was awarded his Doctor of Theology, and he then joined the senate of theological faculty at the University of Wittenberg. In 1516 Johann Tetzel, a friar who went to Germany to sell indulgences to raise money for the rebuilding of St.Peter's Basilica in Rome. A year later Luther wrote to his bishop to protest the sale of indulgences and other church practices he disagreed with, this became The Ninety-Five Theses the document Luther is most famous for. Luther never meant to confront the church, he merely viewed his arguments as scholarly objection, he just wanted to state his opinion on church practices. Whether he wanted to confront the church or not some of his theses did have a challenging tone, in one of them he suggests that the Pope use his own money rather than taking money from the poor through indulgences.The famous story about Luther is when he took a hammer and nail, and posted his theses on the door, once again there is no proof to say he actually did this, it is simply an other legend. Two years later the Ninety-Five Theses was translated from Latin to German so the public could read the document. Luther's Protestant views were condemned as heretical by Pope Leo X in the bull Exsurge Domine in 1520. Consequently Luther was summoned to either renounce or reaffirm them at the Diet of Worms on 17 April 1521. When he appeared before the assembly, Johann von Eck, by then assistant to theArchbishop of Trier, acted as spokesman for Emperor Charles the Fifth. He presented Luther with a table filled with copies of his writings. Eck asked Luther if he still believed what these works taught. He requested time to think about his answer. He was granted an extension to think about his answer. When the counselor asked the same question to Luther the next day, the Luther apologized for the harsh tone of many of his writings, but said that he could not reject the majority of them or the teachings in them.Luther stated, â€Å"Unless I am convinced by proofs from Scri ptures or by plain and clear reasons and arguments, I can and will not retract, for it is neither safe nor wise to do anything against conscience. Here I stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen. † On May 25, the Emperor issued his Edict of Worms, declaring Martin Luther an outlaw. Luther had powerful friends among the princes of Germany, one of whom was Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony. The prince arranged for Luther to be seized on his way from the Diet by a company of masked horsemen, who carried him to the castle of the Wartburg, where he was kept about a year.He grew a wide flaring beard; took on the garb of a knight and assumed the pseudonym Jorg. During this period of forced sojourn in the world, Luther was still hard at work upon his translation of the Bible. During his translation, Luther would make forays into the nearby towns and markets to listen to people speak, so that he could put his translation of the Bible into the language of the people. John Calvin John Calvin was born on July 10, 1509 at Noyon, France. His father, Gerard Calvin was a church leader holding offices for the lordship of Noyon.Calvin’s mother was Jeanne le Franc, the daughter of an innkeeper. John Calvin’s father destined him from the start for a career as a priest, and paid for his education in the household of the noble family of Hangest de Montmor. In May 1521 he was appointed to a chaplaincy in the cathedral of Noyon. He lived with his uncle and attended as an out-student the College de la Marche. From the College de la Marche he moved to the College de Montaigu. John Calvin speedily outstripped all his competitors in grammatical studies, and by his skill as a student of philosophy, and debate.Although not yet ordained, Calvin preached several sermons to the people. After some time, Calvin changed his mind about becoming a priest. He had fallen out of favor with the cathedral chapter at Noyon. On the advice of his relative, Pierre Robert Olivetan , the first translator of the Bible into French, Calvin began to study the Scriptures and to disagree with the Roman Catholic Church. Calvin agreed with his father’s suggestion to move from Paris to Orleans in March of 1528, and change his career to a study of law.Calvin’s progress in the study of law was quick, and he was soon and frequently called upon to lecture. Other studies, however, besides those of law occupied him while in this city, and moved by the humanistic spirit of the age he eagerly developed his classical knowledge. From Orleans, Calvin went to Bourges in the autumn of 1529 to continue his studies. There, by his friend Wolmar, Calvin was taught Greek, and introduced to the study of the New Testament in the original language. The conversations of Wolmar may also have been of use to him in. is consideration of the doctrines of the Reformation, which were now beginning widely diffused through France. From this time forward he became very well known, and a ll who had accepted the Reformed doctrines in France turned to him for instruction. Calvin moved to Basel, Switzerland, where he was welcomed by the band of scholars and theologians who had conspired to make that city the Athens of Switzerland. There Calvin now gave himself to the study of Hebrew. When Calvin was 28, he moved again, to Geneva.Switzerland, and he stayed in Geneva, with the exception of a brief trip, for the rest of his life. While staying in Strassburg in 1540, Calvin met and married Idelette de Bure, whom Calvin had converted from Anabaptism. In her Calvin found, to use his own words, â€Å"the excellent companion of his life,† a â€Å"precious help to him amid his manifold labours and frequent infirmities. † She died in 1549, to the great grief of her husband, who never ceased to mourn her loss. Their only child Jacques, born on the 28th of July 1542, lived only a few days.In his later years, Calvin was afflicted with fever, asthma, and gout. On. the 6th of February, 1564 John Calvin preached his last sermon, having with great difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. He was several times after this carried to church, but never again was able to take any part in the service. On the 25th of April, 1564, Calvin made his will. He spent much time in prayer and died quietly, in the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on the evening of the 27th of May 1564.

Hyundai and Kia Essay

The international corporate branding strategy of Hyundai and Kia are similar yet varied. Both organizations put plans into action that would potentially catapult their brands into the first-class market share position. Hyundai began its strategic branding process by focusing on improving the perception of their brand, positioning itself as a maker of â€Å"refined and confident† automobiles. While Kia attempted to improve consumer perception by billing the maker as an â€Å"exciting and enabling† automaker. Brands must adapt and communicate in more ways than one to reach a fragmented and or distracted audience. The challenges associated with rebranding the identity of both Hyundai and Kia involved the development of purposeful attributes to bring about and reinforce the emotional perceptions. For example, Kia’s global pledge or brand promise was built on the maker’s â€Å"commitment to surpass customer expectations through continuous innovation.† To fortify this promise, through brand positioning, Kia incorporated six attributes into its products: dynamic styling, responsive engineering, well-equipped vehicles, versatility, safety and reliability, and top-tier product and service quality. Integrating the six attributes added to the brands image of quality. Even if a consumer had never experienced the handling of any Kia product, the brand image conveys quality; quality backed by market surveys, reports, market positioning, target advertising, pricing, and other facts that represent a brand image of quality to the world. Corporate branding strategies can add significant value in terms of helping the entire corporation to â€Å"convert awareness into brand consideration in the consumer purchase process.† The overly saturated automobile market in China and Korea is problematic in that the number of cars being manufactured doesn’t allow consumers to focus on the brand message. This is evident of the lackluster sales of the NF YU Xiang of Hyundai and Tianlime of KIA Motors. Both President Noh and Lee crafted a branding strategy for each of their brands to boost sales. Analyzing the data provided, branding modifications could have been made in a few areas. Initially, the case suggests that there were too many cars being made in China and not enough focus on consumer needs by connect it to Brand  Awareness. Chinese consumers were sensitive to price and fuel efficiency, which affected brand choice. Automobiles were also viewed as a young person’s desire for a lifestyle change rather than the need for convenient transportation. So consumer’s preferences were based on emotional and intangible attributes such as style/outlook, and brand image. Improvements could have been made with its brand logo through brand revitalization to revolutionize the brand in order to regain equity. Research has indicated that Asian consumers prefer a brand’s foreign names to its American name. The companies should have established the same concept with the two declining brands instead of retaining the local brand name or expanded the brand awareness by using the local brand as one of the vehicles in the â€Å"taxi project† that did so well, instead of the globally recognized brand-Sonata. The luxury sedan â€Å"Equus† will be launched in China in the E segment by BHMC. President Noh must focus on global customer-based brand equity and global brand positioning for this next line of cars. To establish a global customer-based brand equity, President Noah must create brand salience to distinctively differentiate marketing concepts for each market it will introduce the vehicle in. Brand image can be tricky in a global market because of existing competition, so they must analyze the competitors in each market and focus on meeting a diverse group. The consumer’s response to the brand must elicit positive judgment, consumers must find the vehicle of good quality, and it should be worthy of consideration and superior to similar cars lines. Finally, the company must cultivate resonance for the consumers; they must have enough opportunities and incentives to purchase and own this vehicle. Marketing for the product and a prototype must be in the market place long be fore full production is underway. To establish global brand positioning, each market must be revised by defining the core brand association, identifying point-of-parity, points-of-difference and crafting a brand mantra for the Equus (Keller, 2012, p. 492). To establish standards and customize this product against the competition and for it to do well in the marketplace, President Noh must focus on product strategy-consumer behaviors; communication strategy advertising; distribution strategy-retailers and types of channels; and pricing strategy-value for the consumer. Marketers are blending global objectives with local concerns, there must be sufficient levels of brand awareness and  strong, favorable and unique brand associations in the market the brand is sold to provide and build brand equity (Keller, 2012, p. 511)

Heat Transfer Radiation Lab Report

Module :Heat Transfer – Free Convection and Radiation Laboratory Date :22nd March 2012 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION3 AIMS & OBJECTIVES3 Objectives3 To investigate Free Convection and Radiation3 Theory3 EXPERIMENT3 Apparatus Used3 Procedure4 RESULTS, CALCULATIONS, OBSERVATIONS & CONCLUSIONS5 Observations During Tests5 Table 15 Table 25 Calculations6 Calculating Power (Watts)6 Calculating Heat Transfer Emissivity (? )6 Emisssivity of a black body6 Calculating Q rad6 Calculating Q rad6 Calculating Q conv7 Equation for Free Convection7 Percentage values calculation7 Absolute Pressure calculation7Graph of Pressure Against Temp Difference8 Conclusions8 Conclusion11 Typical Examples of Heat Transfer12 References13 List of Figures, Tables & Graphs14 Heat Transfer Laboratory Sheet I14 Heat Transfer – Free Convection and Radiation Laboratory INTRODUCTION The purpose of this lab is to understand natural and forced convection on a cylinder by measuring surface and ambient temperatures and relating the data to convection heat transfer equations. AIMS & OBJECTIVES Objectives To investigate Free Convection and Radiation 1. Determine the emissivity (? ) of an element experimentally. . Determine the Heat transfer coefficients by free convection Theory Natural Convection: Heat transfer through circulation of fluid due solely to gravity Forced Convection: Heat transfer through circulation of fluid due to forced fluid movement (fan, pump, etc. ) Radiation: Heat transferred by surface photon emission, typically only significant at T>>Room Temp. EXPERIMENT Apparatus Used Figures 1 below shows the vacuum pump vessel and measuring equipment used The apparatus consisted of a heated element which was suspended inside a [pressure vessel.The air pressure in the vessel was varied by the use of either a bleed valve or a 240v vacuum pump. The heat input to the e element was varied by up to 10W, the max working temp was not to exceed 200 °C and maintained at that temperature or less throughout the experiment. The heat, power Input, the element, vessel temperatures and the air pressure inside the vessel was determined by the instruments provided for the experiment Procedure 1) Using the wall mounted barometer the atmospheric pressure was 1018 mB The gauge gives a reading of gauge pressure (diff between the pressure inside the vessel and pressure outside the vessel)Absolute pressure (P) = pressure gauge reading + atmospheric pressure (mB) 2) Pressure reduced to 2mB and input voltage set to 8. 21 volts. 3) Observations and readings taken after 15 mins to allow system to stabilise and readings tabulated. 4) Item 3 repeated with Vacuum pressure reduced by 12, 60, 200, 500 and then finally with the bleed valve fully open tabulated as before. 5) Bleed valve was then fully opened to allow the pressure inside the vessel to meet atmospheric pressure and readings tabulated. RESULTS, CALCULATIONS, OBSERVATIONS & CONCLUSIONSObservations During Tests The initial observations were of the temperature, vacuum pressure and vessel pressures in relation to the inside diameter of the vessel and element assembly. The Temp Diff verses Abs pressure graph below (Graph 1) shows the temp difference at zero free convection given by the equation for a straight line Y=MX+C Surface area of the vessel was given as 3070mm? , Element Length was given as 152mm and 6. 35mm respectively. The following Tables detail what is actually occurring to temperature and heat transfer inside the vessel.The table below shows the results from the tests carried out, using pressure gauge readings -1015 (mB), -1002(mB), -957 (mB), -815(mB), -515(mB) and 0. |Pressure Gauge |Abs Press |Voltage |Current |Power |Element |Element | |(vacuum) | | | | | | | |TEL –TV (K) |(Mb)^1/4 |W |W |% |% | WM^-2K^-1 | |144 |2^1/4 = 1. 19 |4. 7 |1. 14 |81 |19 |2. 57 WM^-2K^-1 | |133 |16^1/4 = 2 |4. 31 |1. 66 |72 |28 |4. 06 WM^-2K^-1 | |123 |61^1/4 = 2. 79 |3. 81 |2. 13 |64 |36 |5. 64 WM^-2K^-1 | |111 |20 3^1/4 = 3. 77 |3. 25 |2. 71 |55 |45 |7. 95 WM^-2K^-1 | |97 |503^1/4 = 4. 73 |2. 68 |3. 24 |45 |55 |10. 8 WM^-2K^-1 | |87 |1018^1/4 = 3. 22 |2. 27 |3. 65 |38 |62 |13. 66 WM^-2K^-1 | Table 2 Calculations Heat losses in the connecting leads Q = (0. 94 x Volts x Amperes) in watts Calculating Power (Watts) Power = Volts x Amperes (Watts) Power= 8. 21volts x 0. 779 amps = 6. 39 (W) x Heat loses Power = 6. 39 (W) x 0. 94 = 6. 01 Watts Heat Transfer = 0. 94 x 8. 21 x 0. 779 = 6. 01 watts Calculating Heat Transfer Emissivity (? ) Emisssivity of a black body ( copper ) = 1 If ? = >1 Use ? = 0. 7 to calculate Q rad ? = Q rad Joules or Watts A x ? x (T^4 EL – T^4 v) ? = 6. 01(W) = 1. 2 ratio (3070Ãâ€"10^-6 ) x (5. 67Ãâ€"10^-6 ) x (436^4 –292 ^4) Calculating Q rad for Pressure -1015 Mb Q rad = ? x A x ? x (T^4 EL – T^4 v) Q rad = 0. 97 x (3070Ãâ€"10^-6 ) x (5. 67Ãâ€"10^-6 ) x (436^4 –292 ^4) Q rad = 4. 87 Watts Calculating Q rad for Pressure -1002 Mb Q rad = ? x A x ? x (T^4 EL – T^4 v) Q rad = 0. 97 x (3070Ãâ€"10^-6 ) x (5. 67Ãâ€"10^-6 ) x (426^4 –293 ^4)Q rad = 4. 31 Watts Calculating Q conv for Free Convection at Heat input 4. 87(W) Q conv = Heat loss x Volts x Amperes – Q rad Q conv = 0. 94 x 8. 21 x0. 779 – 4. 87 Q conv = 1. 14 Watts Equation for Free Convection Q conv = h ( Convected heat transfer ) x A x (T^4 EL – T^4 v) Transpose for h (Convected Heat Transfer) h = Qconv h = 1. 14 = 2. 58Wm^-2K^-1 A x (T^4 EL – T^4 v) (3070Ãâ€"10^-6 ) x (436^4 – 292) Percentage values calculation Qrad + Qconv = Qtotal 4. 87 + 1. 14 = 6. 01 Watts Qrad% = 4. 87/ 6. 0 x 100% = 81% QRad this is because it was not a perfect vacuum Qconv % =1. 14/ 6. 01 x 100% = 19% QConv this is because it was not a perfect vacuum Absolute Pressure calculation Abs Press = Gauge pressure – Atmos Pressure =1015Mb – 1018Mb = 3^1/4 Graph of Pressure Against Temp Difference [pic] Graph 1 Conclusions Temp differe nce for free convection crosses Y axis is at 160(K) for zero gas pressure, the power by the heater element has transferred completely to the vessel by radiation at his point. Natural convection is more prevalent at lower temperatures whereas radiation is more prevalent at higher temperaturesPossible Sources of error: †¢ conduction from the heated cylinder to its housing tube †¢ possible changes in ambient temperature †¢ Variations in surface temperature Heat Transfer by Convection and uses Heat typically does not flow through liquids and gases by means of conduction. Liquids and gases are fluids; their particles are not fixed in place; they move about the bulk of the sample of matter. The model used for explaining heat transfer through the bulk of liquids and gases involves convection. Convection is the process of heat transfer from one location to the next by the movement of fluids.The moving fluid carries energy with it. The fluid flows from a high temperature locat ion to a low temperature location. [pic] (Images courtesy Peter Lewis and Chris West of Standford's SLAC. ) To understand convection in fluids, Consider the heat transfer through the water that is being heated in a pot on a stove. The source of the heat is the stove burner. The metal pot that holds the water is heated by the stove burner. As the metal becomes hot, it begins to conduct heat to the water. The water at the boundary with the metal pan becomes hot. Fluids expand when heated and become less dense.So as the water at the bottom of the pot becomes hot, its density decreases. The differences in water density between the bottom of the pot, and the top of the pot results in the gradual formation of circulation currents. Hot water begins to rise to the top of the pot displacing the colder water that was originally there. And the colder water that was present at the top of the pot moves towards the bottom of the pot where it is heated and begins to rise. These circulation current s slowly develop over time, providing the pathway for heated water to transfer energy from the bottom of the pot to the surface.Convection also explains how an electric heater placed on the floor of a cold room warms up the air in the room. Air present near the coils of the heater warm up. As the air warms up, it expands, becomes less dense and begins to rise. As the hot air rises, it pushes some of the cold air near the top of the room out of the way. The cold air moves towards the bottom of the room to replace the hot air that has risen. As the colder air approaches the heater at the bottom of the room, it becomes warmed by the heater and begins to rise. Once more, convection currents are slowly formed.Air travels along these pathways, carrying energy with it from the heater throughout the room. Convection is the main method of heat transfer in fluids such as water and air. It is often said that heat rises in these situations. The more appropriate explanation is to say that heated fluid rises. For instance, as the heated air rises from the heater on a floor, it carries more energetic particles with it. As the more energetic particles of the heated air mix with the cooler air near the ceiling, the average kinetic energy of the air near the top of the room increases.This increase in the average kinetic energy corresponds to an increase in temperature. The net result of the rising hot fluid is the transfer of heat from one location to another location. The convection method of heat transfer always involves the transfer of heat by the movement of matter. The two examples of convection discussed here – heating water in a pot and heating air in a room – are examples of natural convection. The driving force of the circulation of fluid is natural – differences in density between two locations as the result of fluid being heated at some source. Some sources introduce the concept of buoyant forces to explain why the heated fluids rise. We will not pursue such explanations here. ) Natural convection is common in nature. The earth's oceans and atmosphere are heated by natural convection. In contrast to natural convection, forced convection involves fluid being forced from one location to another by fans, pumps and other devices. Many home heating systems involve force air heating. Air is heated at a furnace and blown by fans through ductwork and released into rooms at vent locations. This is an example of forced convection.The movement of the fluid from the hot location (near the furnace) to the cool location (the rooms throughout the house) is driven or forced by a fan. Some ovens are forced convection ovens; they have fans that blow heated air from a heat source into the oven. Some fireplaces enhance the heating ability of the fire by blowing heated air from the fireplace unit into the adjacent room. This is another example of forced convection. Heat Transfer by Radiation A final method of heat transfer involves radiation. R adiation is the transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves.To radiate means to send out or spread from a central location. Whether it is light, sound, waves, rays, flower petals, wheel spokes or pain, if something radiates then it protrudes or spreads outward from an origin. The transfer of heat by radiation involves the carrying of energy from an origin to the space surrounding it. The energy is carried by electromagnetic waves and does not involve the movement or the interaction of matter. Thermal radiation can occur through matter or through a region of space that is void of matter (i. e. , a vacuum).In fact, the heat received on Earth from the sun is the result of electromagnetic waves traveling through the void of space between the Earth and the sun. All objects radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The rate at which this energy is released is proportional to the Kelvin temperature (T) raised to the fourth power. Radiation rate = k†¢T4 (Images courte sy Peter Lewis and Chris West of Standford's SLAC. ) The hotter the object, the more it radiates. The sun obviously radiates off more energy than a hot mug of coffee. The temperature also affects the wavelength and frequency of the radiated waves.Objects at typical room temperatures radiate energy as infrared waves. Being invisible to the human eye, we do not see this form of radiation. An infrared camera is capable of detecting such radiation. Perhaps you have seen thermal photographs or videos of the radiation surrounding a person or animal or a hot mug of coffee or the Earth. The energy radiated from an object is usually a collection or range of wavelengths. This is usually referred to as an emission spectrum. As the temperature of an object increases, the wavelengths within the spectra of the emitted radiation also decrease.Hotter objects tend to emit shorter wavelength, higher frequency radiation. The coils of an electric toaster are considerably hotter than room temperature an d emit electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum. Fortunately, this provides a convenient warning to its users that the coils are hot. The tungsten filament of an incandescent light bulb emits electromagnetic radiation in the visible (and beyond) range. This radiation not only allows us to see, it also warms the glass bulb that contains the filament. Put your hand near the bulb (without touching it) and you will feel the radiation from the bulb as well.Thermal radiation is a form of heat transfer because the electromagnetic radiation emitted from the source carries energy away from the source to surrounding (or distant) objects. This energy is absorbed by those objects, causing the average kinetic energy of their particles to increase and causing the temperatures to rise. In this sense, energy is transferred from one location to another by means of electromagnetic radiation. The image at the right was taken by a thermal imaging camera. The camera detects the radiation emitte d by objects and represents it by means of a color photograph.The hotter colors represent areas of objects that are emitting thermal radiation at a more intense rate. Conclusion The experiment described above provides a convenient method whereby You may investigate the different processes that contribute to cooling in a standard laboratory experiment. In particular, the measurements obtained to enable you to clarify the relative contributions from convection and radiation. Examples of Free – Natural Convection Heat transfer by natural convection occurs when a fluid is in contact with a surface hotter or colder than itself. As the fluid is heated or cooled it changes its density.This difference in density causes movement in the fluid that has been heated or cooled and causes the heat transfer to continue. There are many examples of natural convection in the food industry. Convection is significant when hot surfaces, such as retorts which may be vertical or horizontal cylinders , are exposed with or without insulation to colder ambient air. It occurs when food is placed inside a chiller or freezer store in which circulation is not assisted by fans. Convection is important when material is placed in ovens without fans and afterwards when the cooked material is removed to cool in air.Convective heat transfer is a mechanism of heat transfer occurring because of bulk motion (observable movement) of fluids. Heat is the entity of interest being advected (carried), and diffused (dispersed). This can be contrasted with radiative heat transfer, the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves. Heat is transferred by convection in numerous examples of naturally occurring fluid flow, such as: wind, oceanic currents, and movements within the Earth's mantle. Convection is also used in engineering practices to provide desired temperature changes, as in heating of homes, industrial processes, cooling of equipment, etc.The rate of convective heat transfer may be impro ved by the use of a heat sink, often in conjunction with a fan. For instance, a typical computer CPU will have a purpose-made fan to ensure its operating temperature is kept within tolerable limits. Typical Examples of Heat Transfer CONDUCTION: Heat conduction is an essential and commonplace part of our daily lives, in industry, and in nature. Whenever heat needs to be transferred through an opaque substance, the transfer must be by conduction.In a hot-water heating system, for example, heat from burning fuel is transferred by conduction through the iron or steel of the boiler to heat the water. Heat from a burner on a stove is conducted through the bottom of utensils to cook food. In nature, the surface of the earth is heated by the sun, and some of this heat is conducted to deeper layers of the soil during the day and back to the surface at night-the varying ability of different kinds of soil and water to absorb and conduct heat received from the sun has a profound effect on local and worldwide weather and climate. Examples Touching a stove and being burned -Ice cooling down your hand -Boiling water by thrusting a red-hot piece of iron into it CONVECTION: Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk fluid motion (steams and currents) are caused by buoyancy forces that result from density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. Forced convection is a term used when the streams and currents in the fluid are induced by external means—such as fans, stirrers, and pumps—creating an artificially induced convection current. Examples -Hot air rising, cooling, and falling (convection currents An old-fashioned radiator (creates a convection cell in a room by emitting warm air at the top and drawing in cool air at the bottom). RADIATION: – Heat from the sun warming your face- Heat from a lightbulb – Heat from a fire – Heat from anything else which is warmer than its surroundings. – Gas chambers in Jet engines – Circulation Boiler Furnaces Industrial example Radiation Heat transfer generally occurs in Higher temperature applications within processes with furnace temperatures above about 2200 °F (1200 °C). They usually have furnaces which use combustors such as in the metals, minerals, and waste incineration industries.In general, the dominant heat transfer mechanism in those industries is thermal radiation. This is in contrast to lower temperature applications where both radiation and forced convection are often important. References [1] Understanding Physics, sections 11. 5 – 11. 7, John Wiley & Sons 1998. [2] C. T. O’Sullivan, Correction for cooling techniques in heat experiments. Physics Education, 25, 176 – 179 (1990). [3] The data acquisition system (data logger) used was the eProLab system developed under the Leonardo da Vinci Programme ComLab2 (project NO SI 143008); website www. e-prolab. com/comlab/. 4] In some situations differences between Ts and Ta may be important; see, for example, C. T. O’Sullivan, Newton's law of cooling – a critical assessment, Amer. J. Phys. , 58 (10), 956 – 960 (1990). SHEFFIELD HALLAM UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF ACES (2009), Process Engineering Lab Sheet. Multi Hole Extrusion Suranaree University of Technology, Last accessed 7th April 2009 at: http://www. sut. ac. th/Engineering/metal/pdf/metform/04_extrusion. pdf ROYMECH : Mechanical engineering and engineering materials. – Last accessed 1st April 2009 at: http://www. roymech. co. uk/Useful_Tables/Manufacturing/Extruding. tml Russ College of Engineering and Technology at Ohio University. http://www. ent. ohiou. edu/~raub/manufacturing/extrusion. htm#Types%20of%20 extrusion: Course notes and hand outs. Sheffield Hallam University List of Figures, Tables & Graphs Figure 1Vacuum Pump and Vessel set up Table 1Pressure gauge readings -1015 (mB), -1002(mB), -957 (mB), -815(mB), -515(mB) and 0 Table 2Temp Differences of 144(K), 133( K), 123(K), 111(K), 97(K) and 87(K) Graph 1Temp Difference Vs Absolute Pressure Appendixes Heat Transfer Laboratory SheetI [pic] ———————– Figure 1 Table 1 Temp difference free convection (160K)